How Did the Territory of Ancient China Change Over Time?

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In the previous section, I discussed the geographical scope of Chinese history as defined by later generations. In this section, I will focus on what "China" meant in the minds of people of the time—specifically, the extent of the territories under the control of the Central Plains dynasties. You may have noticed that when referring to the domains of ancient dynasties, I use the term "territory" (疆域) instead of "sovereign land" (领土), as the two concepts are distinct.

Ancient Chinese territorial boundaries were based on the concept of "all land under heaven belongs to the king." The sky was above, and all land below was considered "under heaven," with China at its center. Hence, the ruler could decide the extent of his domain. The term "疆" (boundary) refers to a border or demarcation, while "域" (domain) indicates a spatial range. This range was determined by the supreme ruler of the time—be it a king, a son of heaven, or an emperor.

Modern national borders are quite different. They are not unilaterally determined but accepted by neighboring countries and protected under international law. They represent an equal relationship between nations and delineate territory that includes airspace, territorial waters, and the subsoil beneath the land and sea. In ancient times, such concepts did not exist. Without aircraft, the idea of airspace was irrelevant; without advanced ships and artillery, the notion of territorial waters was not feasible.

Another distinction lies in the concept of sovereignty. Today, sovereignty over a country's territory is unequivocal. However, in ancient China, territorial ownership did not always come with a clear sense of sovereignty. For instance, nomadic peoples often lacked a defined territorial concept. They moved according to the availability of water and pasture, claiming areas as their own when needed and using force to seize them if necessary. Central Plains dynasties sometimes ceded control of certain regions to vassal states or neighboring regimes, viewing it as a matter of administrative delegation rather than relinquishing sovereignty, as all land was considered part of the "under heaven."

The term "territory" was used to describe the area under governance in ancient China, and this term persists today instead of "sovereign land."

The evolution of China's territory is too complex to address every dynasty, regime, or era. Instead, I'll focus on a few representative stages:

The Qin Dynasty

The first critical stage begins with Emperor Qin Shi Huang's unification of the Six States. Before this, during the Shang, Zhou, and earlier dynasties, no central authority governed all regions. Qin Shi Huang consolidated the territories of the Six States in 221 BCE, though this was not yet Qin's largest extent. Following the conquest of southern Chu and the Yue territories, Qin expanded into parts of modern Zhejiang and Fujian. By 215 BCE, General Meng Tian drove the Xiongnu out of the Ordos Loop, establishing new administrative districts like Jiuyuan Commandery.

By the time of Qin Shi Huang's death in 210 BCE, the Qin Empire spanned from the Ordos Plateau, Yin Mountains, and Liao River in the north to northeastern Vietnam in the south, and from the Longshan Mountains in the west to the Korean Peninsula in the east. This marked China's first vast, unified territory.

The Han Dynasty

The Han Dynasty expanded upon the Qin's foundation. During Emperor Wu's reign, significant territorial expansions culminated in 60 BCE with the establishment of the Western Regions Protectorate. By the late Western Han, the stable territory stretched north to the Yin Mountains and Liao River, east to parts of the Korean Peninsula, south to northern and central Vietnam, and west to the Pamirs and Lake Balkhash.

Compared to modern China, the Han's territory excluded three key areas: the Tibetan Plateau, the Mongolian Plateau, and northeastern regions beyond the Liao River. These areas were unsuitable for agriculture at the time, making them less strategically necessary.

The Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty, particularly in its early years, witnessed unprecedented expansion. Key milestones include:

However, the Tang's territorial reach often depended on military campaigns rather than sustained administration. For instance, the Andong Protectorate in Korea was quickly withdrawn, and Western territories retreated after the An Lushan Rebellion, leaving Central Asia open to Tibetan expansion.

The Yuan Dynasty

Under Genghis Khan and his successors, the Yuan Dynasty unified vast regions, surpassing previous dynasties in both size and administrative reach. The Yuan governed territories from the Irtysh River in the west to the Sea of Okhotsk in the east and from northern Korea to the Himalayas in the south. Administrative divisions, including provincial systems, were established even in previously ungoverned regions like Mongolia and northern Manchuria.

The Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty reached its territorial peak under Emperor Qianlong in 1759, encompassing over 13 million square kilometers. However, subsequent conflicts, such as the Opium Wars, led to significant territorial losses. By the late Qing era, territories like Outer Mongolia declared independence, and treaties with Russia further reduced China's landmass.

These stages illustrate how the concept of "territory" evolved in Chinese history, reflecting changing geopolitical and administrative realities. Each dynasty adapted its governance to the practical needs of its time while shaping the historical boundaries of China.