How Did Ancient Central Governments Divide Major Administrative Regions?

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In the sixth year of Emperor Wu of Han's Yuanding reign (111 BCE), Emperor Wu embarked on an inspection tour. When he arrived at Tongxiang in Zuoyi County, he received the joyous news that the Nanyue Kingdom had been pacified. Delighted, he renamed the county Wenxi (literally, "Heard the Joy"), which is now Wenxi County in Shanxi Province. Later, upon reaching Xinzhong Township in Ji County, he learned that the rebel leader Lü Jia had been captured. To commemorate this, he established a new county named Huojia (literally, "Captured Jia"), which is today's Huojia County in Henan Province.

These two counties have a history of over 2,100 years, but the concept of counties dates back even earlier. Counties first appeared in the late Warring States period. By the Qin Dynasty, there were already several hundred counties, with some estimates suggesting there may have been over a thousand. Among these, a portion has remained stable in name and administrative seat for over two millennia.

The administrative structure of counties has also remained relatively stable. By the end of the Western Han Dynasty, around the beginning of the Common Era, there were over 1,500 county-level administrative units in China. Today, China has about 2,800 such units, despite its territory being significantly larger and its population over 20 times that of the Han Dynasty.

Why Are Counties Stable?

Counties have been the most stable administrative units throughout the evolution of China's administrative divisions. They are the basic level of governance, directly managing local populations. A county's size and jurisdiction must align with its administrative functions, which have remained largely unchanged for over two thousand years.

In an agrarian society with limited transportation, a county's jurisdiction couldn't be too large, or it would be unmanageable. If the population grew, taxes increased, and administrative responsibilities expanded, new counties would be established, or existing ones divided. Conversely, if population and taxes decreased, some counties would be merged or abolished to reduce administrative costs. As a result, both the number and boundaries of counties have been relatively stable. The term "county" itself has never changed, except in certain special regions or areas inhabited by ethnic minorities.

Origin of Counties

In the feudal system, the land was directly managed by kings and lords. Large lords would often delegate smaller fiefs to subordinates, and these subdivisions had no administrative needs beyond tribute. However, during the Warring States period, the Zhou king lost control over the lords, leading to annexations. Large states absorbed smaller states, and rulers began directly managing the annexed territories rather than redistributing them as fiefs.

These directly managed territories, often at the edges of central lands, were called "xian" (counties), derived from the word "xuan," meaning "hanging," as they were on the outskirts. Rulers appointed officials to govern these areas. As the number of counties grew, their names were differentiated with specific identifiers, such as Wenxi and Huojia. Counties were thus products of the decline of feudalism and the rise of centralized administration.

Emergence of Prefectures and Provinces

By the late Warring States period, with the rapid expansion of territories, it became challenging for rulers to directly manage all counties. This led to the establishment of prefectures (jun) to oversee counties. After Qin Shi Huang unified China in 221 BCE, the empire was divided into 36 prefectures, which were later adjusted to about 50 by the dynasty's end.

Under the Han Dynasty, particularly during Emperor Wu’s reign, territorial expansion led to the creation of over 100 prefectures. To manage these, 13 inspectorates (cishi bu) were established, which evolved into a higher administrative tier overseeing prefectures and counties.

Later Developments

Over time, administrative systems evolved further:

Throughout these changes, counties remained the foundational administrative unit. Adjustments were primarily driven by population changes, tax revenue, and administrative needs.

Conclusion

Over 2,000 years of administrative evolution demonstrate the enduring utility of the county system, first formalized under the Qin Dynasty. Despite changes in higher-level administrative structures and names, the essence of centralized governance through counties has remained consistent, reflecting its adaptability to China’s vast territory and population.