Chang'an and Luoyang of the Han Dynasty

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After Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu and ascended to the throne as emperor, he initially made Luoyang his capital. However, a few months later, after listening to the suggestion of Lou Jing, a frontier soldier, and receiving the support of Zhang Liang, he decided to relocate the capital to Guanzhong.

At that time, most of Liu Bang's followers were his old acquaintances from Feng and Pei—his hometown region (modern Feng County and Pei County in Jiangsu Province). They opposed the move. Additionally, the former Qin capital, Xianyang, had already been destroyed. Upon relocating to Guanzhong, there was initially no place to reside. They temporarily settled in what is now Lintong, and only moved to the new capital after its construction was completed. This new capital was named Chang’an, which was originally the name of a local township with auspicious connotations. Thus, early on, this relocation was simply referred to as "moving to Guanzhong."

Why did Liu Bang make this decision, and why did the Western Han capital remain in Chang’an?

The location of a capital is critical for both internal stability and external defense. Externally, the capital must be situated to address major military threats. If a capital is too far from the frontline or not positioned to confront the main adversary, it becomes impossible to contain threats proactively. This could lead to abandoning or relocating the capital in times of weakness. Conversely, situating the capital near key threats compels rulers to continually strengthen defenses and maintain a proactive stance, ensuring national security.

During the Western Han, the primary military threat came from the Xiongnu in the north and northwest. In the early Han period, beacon fires were frequently lit at Ganquan Palace (near modern Chunhua County, Shaanxi Province) to warn of Xiongnu raids. Xiongnu cavalry could reach within 800 li (approximately 400 km) of Chang’an, close enough for a one-day march. With Chang’an as the capital, the Western Han consistently fortified the surrounding area, defending the northern and northwestern frontiers. By the reign of Emperor Wu, the Han launched counterattacks that expelled the Xiongnu from Han territory, secured the Great Wall line, and expanded into the Hexi Corridor using Guanzhong as a base. Liu Bang’s decision to make Chang’an the capital proved highly effective for external defense.

Internally, the capital must control domestic forces and prevent rebellions.

In the era of cold weaponry, a relatively enclosed and defensible environment was ideal. A capital should also be located in a geographically advantageous position to facilitate offensives if needed. In this regard, Chang’an was far superior to Luoyang. The terrain around Luoyang was flat, with low mountains and broad pathways, making it difficult to defend. By contrast, Guanzhong, where Chang’an is located, was known as a "land of four barriers." To the north were the Loess Plateau and mountain ranges, to the south was the Qinling Mountains, to the west were the Long Mountains and the Longdong Plateau, and to the east, the Qinling and Huashan Mountains closely bordered the Wei and Yellow Rivers. This basin, surrounded on all sides, was highly defensible. Key passes such as Tongguan, Hangu Pass, Wuguan, and Xiaoguan secured the limited access routes, making the area easy to defend and difficult to attack. Additionally, the position offered a commanding advantage over the densely populated and economically developed Central Plains, enabling proactive offensives.

Strategically, Guanzhong was a stronghold.

In the early Western Han, much of the Central Plains was not under direct imperial control, with large fiefdoms occupied by feudal lords. By building the capital in Chang’an, the Han could consolidate Guanzhong as its base while securing territories to the west, north, and southwest, such as Hanzhong and Bashu (modern Sichuan).

In cases of rebellion in the Central Plains, Chang’an provided security for the capital while enabling counterattacks once sufficient forces were mobilized. For example, during the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BCE, General Zhou Yafu successfully suppressed the uprising. With the secure rear base of Guanzhong and the loyal Liang Kingdom blocking access routes, Zhou Yafu was able to concentrate forces and defeat the rebels within three months.

Thus, making Chang’an the capital proved advantageous for both external defense and internal control.

Why did the Eastern Han capital remain in Luoyang?

Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu) of the Eastern Han established Luoyang as the capital, and it remained so throughout the dynasty, except for a brief relocation to Chang’an under Duress during Dong Zhuo's regime. Calls to relocate the capital back to Chang’an persisted, reflecting Chang’an’s enduring influence. However, Luoyang retained its status as the capital. Why?

A common explanation is that Liu Xiu, whose power base was in Nanyang (modern Nanyang City, Henan Province), relied on the support of local elites there. Placing the capital in Luoyang, closer to Nanyang, made it easier to maintain this support. While true for the early Eastern Han, this factor alone does not explain the broader strategic preference for Luoyang.

A more critical factor was the ease of food supply. Capitals inevitably gather large populations, including the royal family, officials, soldiers, and other non-agricultural workers. By the mid-Western Han, Chang’an and its surrounding counties housed over a million people. However, the limited agricultural capacity of the Guanzhong Plain could not meet the growing demands of the capital. Despite being fertile, Guanzhong’s farmland was constrained by urban expansion, palace construction, and military needs. The region increasingly relied on grain imports from the Central Plains, which required costly and perilous transport along the Yellow and Wei Rivers.

In contrast, Luoyang, located closer to the Central Plains, faced fewer logistical challenges. Grain transport to Luoyang was shorter, avoided the treacherous Sanmenxia Gorge, and was more reliable. Consequently, while Chang’an suffered from severe grain supply issues, Luoyang did not face such difficulties throughout the Eastern Han.

Changes in military conditions also favored Luoyang.

After Dou Xian defeated the Northern Xiongnu in 91 CE, they migrated westward, and the Southern Xiongnu, who had submitted to the Han, posed no major threat. However, rebellions by the Qiang people in the northwest became frequent, making Chang’an a frontier city rather than a secure capital. By the late Eastern Han, much of northern Guanzhong had fallen out of Han control, becoming a region inhabited by Qiang, Xiongnu, and other nomadic groups. Under such conditions, Chang’an would not have been a viable capital.

Conclusion

The choice of a capital depends on both external and internal conditions. While Chang’an excelled in earlier periods for defense and internal control, Luoyang's strategic location and logistical advantages better suited the Eastern Han’s circumstances.