The Two Capitals of the Sui and Tang Dynasties

Back to contents

In the history of Chang'an as the capital, the Tang Dynasty can be said to be the most glorious period, both in terms of the city's scale and its influence on the nation and regions beyond China. However, after the Tang Dynasty, no other dynasty ever built its capital in Chang'an. What was the reason for this?

In fact, during the early Tang Dynasty and even during the Sui Dynasty, the rulers had already realized the crisis of Chang'an as a capital, primarily due to the old issue—food and material supply. A review of historical records reveals the following: In the 14th year of the Kaihuang era (594 AD), there was a great drought in Guanzhong, leading to famine. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty led the people to seek food in Luoyang. In the first year of the Xianheng era (670 AD), there was a famine in Guanzhong, and an imperial decree allowed the people to go to various provinces for food. In the second year (671 AD), due to the previous year’s drought and famine, Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty went to Luoyang. In the first year of the Yongchun era (682 AD), there was famine in Guanzhong, and soldiers were sent to various provinces like Deng and Sui to get grain. Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu went to Luoyang, where many officials and civilians died of hunger on the way. Emperors of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, including Emperor Yang of Sui, Emperor Gaozong of Tang, Empress Wu, and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, often resided in Luoyang or traveled frequently between Chang'an and Luoyang. Empress Wu even moved the capital to Luoyang, renaming it "Shendu" (Divine Capital). The term "seeking food" refers to the act of going to places where food aid was distributed.

This was because food supply in Guanzhong was already quite tight. A large portion of the grain was transported from the Yellow River Basin east of the Taihang Mountains, flowing upstream through the Sanmen Gorge and then into the Wei River, which was also navigated upstream to Chang'an. Whenever there were natural disasters or crop failures in Guanzhong, the demand for food would rise significantly. Transporting enough grain to the capital in a short period of time was extremely difficult, and the cost was high. It was easier for the emperor to lead the people to Luoyang, where food supply was more accessible. Compared to Chang'an, this approach was more convenient and economical.

Thus, the Sui Dynasty built several large granaries in Luoyang. The largest, Hanjia Granary, located in the northern part of today's Luoyang, was established in the first year of the Daye era (605 AD). During the Tang Dynasty, large amounts of grain were stored there, making it a major state granary. Archaeological excavations confirm that the granary was 612 meters long from east to west, 710 meters wide from north to south, covering an area of more than 430,000 square meters, and had over 400 circular storage pits. The large pits could store more than 10,000 bushels of grain, and even the smaller ones could hold thousands. In the eighth year of the Tianbao era (749 AD), the total grain storage reached about 5.83 million bushels.

It has often been said that Emperor Yang of the Sui, Emperor Gaozong of Tang, Empress Wu, and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang preferred to live in Luoyang or frequently traveled between Chang'an and Luoyang because they enjoyed pleasure, or because the environment in Luoyang was better than in Chang'an. However, if the motive was simply personal pleasure, the emperor and empress would not have lacked luxury in Chang'an. For state visits, a short trip would suffice. But living in Luoyang, even without bringing large numbers of people, could certainly save some of the costs of transporting grain from Luoyang to Chang'an.

During the Western Han Dynasty, grain supply to Guanzhong came from the eastern part of the country, specifically the Yellow River basin and the Shandong Peninsula. By the early Sui and Tang Dynasties, much of it came from the Huai River basin. After the An Lushan Rebellion, due to the impact of war in the north and the influx of new settlers in the south, which increased labor and promoted agricultural production, the source of grain for Guanzhong shifted from the northern Yellow River region to the Jianghuai region and the south of the Yangtze River. After Emperor Yang of Sui opened the canal from Luoyang to Jiangdu (modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), it became easier to transport grain and other essentials from the Jianghuai and Jiangnan regions to Luoyang, but the conditions for transporting goods from Luoyang to Chang'an remained unchanged. As a result, Guanzhong became even more dependent on the Jianghuai canal system.

In the second year of the Zhenyuan era (786 AD) of Emperor Dezong of Tang, in order to bypass the natural obstacle of Sanmen Gorge and reduce transport losses, Li Mi suggested building an 18-mile road between the Jijin granary east of the gorge and the Sanmen granary west of it. This would allow grain to be loaded onto carts first, then shipped around the gorge and brought to Chang'an. Although this was more labor-intensive, it was still better than losing grain and lives due to shipwrecks. In April of that year, the grain in Guanzhong ran out, and there was a danger of mutiny in the imperial army. Fortunately, 30,000 bushels of rice from Jiangnan were delivered to Shanxian (modern Sanmenxia, Henan). Upon hearing the news, Emperor Dezong joyfully ran to the Eastern Palace and said to the crown prince, "The rice has arrived in Shanxian. Father and son are saved."

In the first year of the Xingyuan era (784 AD), due to the rebellion of Li Xilie, the Jianghuai canal system was blocked, forcing a detour. Wang Shao was forced to escort a shipment of silk and garments to the temporary residence of Emperor Dezong in Liangzhou (modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi). Emperor Dezong, overjoyed, personally expressed his gratitude, saying, "The soldiers still have no spring clothes, but I am still wearing fur garments." This was in May.

By the fourth year of the Tianfu era (904 AD) of the Tang Dynasty, Zhu Wen forced Emperor Zhaozong and the people of Chang'an to relocate to Luoyang, destroying the palaces and residences in Chang'an. The wood and building materials were transported by the Wei and Yellow Rivers to Luoyang, and Chang'an became a ruin. Luoyang replaced Chang'an as the capital, but three years later, Zhu Wen seized the Tang dynasty throne and established the Later Liang dynasty, moving the capital to Bianzhou (modern Kaifeng) and renaming the former Eastern Capital of Luoyang as the Western Capital. During the Five Dynasties period, the capital was effectively moved to Kaifeng, a trend that was continued by the Northern Song Dynasty.

If the fall of Chang'an had only resulted in the destruction of the palaces and the city, it would not have been difficult to restore it after the wars ended. Rebuilding a new city with the strength of the entire nation would not have been hard, as Chang'an and Luoyang had been rebuilt several times before. But after the Tang Dynasty, no dynasty ever returned to Chang'an as its capital, and there were other reasons for this. While the city could have been restored after the war, in fact, by the time of the Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty, the capital not only did not return to Chang'an, but also moved from Luoyang to Kaifeng.

After Zhao Kuangyin established the Song Dynasty, he continued to use Kaifeng as the capital. From a military standpoint, Kaifeng had no natural defenses, making it vulnerable to attack, as seen in the late Northern Song period when the Jin army advanced southward and quickly surrounded Kaifeng. Zhao Kuangyin, a military man, would have known that such a situation was risky. The real concern, however, was the food and material supply to the capital.

By the early Northern Song Dynasty, the economic center, particularly the grain-producing areas, had shifted to the Jianghuai region and south of the Yangtze River. The capital now depended more on supplies from the south than ever before. In this regard, Kaifeng was more favorable than Luoyang. The waterway system connected to the Huai River and the Yangtze River, along with the flat plains along the route, reduced transportation costs, ensuring the supply of food and goods to Kaifeng.

Zhu Yuanzhang, upon founding the Ming Dynasty, knew that Nanjing was too far south, but for the time being, he chose it as the capital because the Yuan Dynasty still held Beijing. After he took the capital, he realized that Nanjing was too far south for a unified nation. In the first year of the Hongwu era (1368 AD), he declared Nanjing as the capital. However, by the second year (1369 AD), he sought advice from his ministers about a possible move to other locations, including Guanzhong, Luoyang, and Kaifeng. Ultimately, he decided that Nanjing was the most strategic location due to its access to vital waterways.

Although Zhu Yuanzhang had initially planned to move the capital to Zhongdu (modern Fengyang), by 1375, the plan was abandoned due to logistical challenges. In

1378, he abandoned Kaifeng as a potential capital due to issues with the canal system.

In the later years of his reign, Zhu Yuanzhang considered relocating the capital to Guanzhong, but after sending his son to investigate, he abandoned the idea, likely realizing that Guanzhong was not ideal either. This left the solution of the capital city to his successors.

In conclusion, during the unified periods before the Yuan Dynasty, the most suitable capital location was in the central plains of the Yellow River Basin. The trend was from west to east, with capitals moving along the line of Xi'an—Luoyang—Kaifeng. The decisive factor was ensuring a reliable food supply and transport routes. After the Yuan Dynasty, the capital moved to Beijing, further from the primary grain-producing areas, but new transport routes were established. Zhu Yuanzhang, however, did not manage to select the ideal capital and left the decision to his successors.