Relay Stations Corroded by Corruption
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Starting from the Qin Dynasty, each dynasty would center its road-building efforts around the capital, constructing and maintaining a road system that connected various administrative centers, border areas, and military strategic points. On this foundation, a relatively complete and comprehensive postal relay system developed. This postal relay, or "yichuan," refers to a system where a relay station was built at regular intervals along these roads, generally at a distance that could be covered in one day's journey. At each station, basic supplies were available, including food, rest areas, and accommodations. The stations also provided transportation services, such as horses, cattle, mules, carts, boats, and human porters.
Of course, establishing several thousand of these relay stations nationwide, along with maintaining and managing the personnel to supply these services, and maintaining the transportation tools, was a significant financial burden. Some relay stations were located in remote, sparsely populated areas, requiring personnel to be sent from distant locations and supplies to be dispatched from the interior, which made the operational costs very high. However, to ensure the daily governance of the country, especially to strengthen border defense, maintain internal security, and ensure smooth communication of government orders, the relay stations were essential, so the state did not hesitate to incur these costs. As a result, the management of these stations was subject to very strict regulations.
For example, during the Han Dynasty, the state would use official carriages to transport important officials or those specially designated by the emperor for public duties, a service known as "chengchuan." "Chuan" refers to the practice of passing along documents and officials from one relay station to the next. Sima Qian, for instance, accompanied Emperor Wu of Han on tours of various regions, and Sima Xiangru was sent to Ba Shu to console the people there—both enjoyed the "chengchuan" service. In some cases, when the emperor urgently summoned someone or wanted to show respect for an elder, a "chengchuan" order would be issued to bring the person to the capital. Generally, regular officials or routine matters could not use this service.
During the Tang Dynasty, over 1,600 relay stations were set up across the country, with 260 water stations, 1,297 land stations, and 86 combined water-and-land stations. Typically, a station was set up every 30 li, though special conditions could alter this distance. Sixty-five stations were specifically designated for breeding and providing horses for the postal service. Officials on official business were given different levels of service depending on their rank. A first-rank official could use ten horses, with the number decreasing with each rank, while an eighth or ninth-rank official would only get one horse, and one groom for every three horses. Water stations were equipped with two to four boats, each manned by three sailors, depending on demand.
In the Ming Dynasty, the use of government relay stations was restricted to six specific situations:
- To transmit the emperor’s edicts or to carry out assignments delegated by the emperor.
- To report urgent military intelligence, which had to be of significant importance.
- For princes to deliver congratulations or tributes, or to send envoys to the capital. The number of princes eligible for this was limited, and strict rules were in place for such uses of the relay system. In 1395, a law was enacted that prohibited the use of the system for routine tasks or ceremonial exchanges between royal households.
- For civil and military officials traveling to new appointments, provided the journey was over 1,500 li.
- When a serving official died, their body and family could use the system to return to their home.
- For the descendants of Confucius, specifically those holding the title of Duke of the Sheng family and their direct descendants.
If strictly enforced, these rules would limit the use of the relay system to relatively few people. However, as corruption worsened, the misuse of the relay system became rampant. Officials and others often used it to curry favor, bribe superiors, or transport friends and relatives, sometimes for personal or illegal gain. Even common citizens, with the right connections or bribes, could gain access to the system.
Xu Xiake, a famous traveler of the Ming Dynasty, provides an example. Xu, having failed in the imperial examinations, gave up pursuing a career as a government official and became a professional traveler. As a commoner, he did not meet any of the six conditions for using the relay system. However, in his Travel Diaries, Xu details how he used the system to send people for him, often demanding extravagant services. In Guangxi, for instance, the relay station provided him with ten porters, two palanquins, and horses. Sometimes, when the service was inadequate or dangerous, he even had the porters beaten. Despite not being entitled to use the system, Xu felt entitled to it, relying on his fame or the influence of officials who admired him.
As it turned out, Xu’s behavior was typical of the period. Those with official positions, power, or connections easily exploited the system for personal gain. Even individuals who technically met the six conditions faced strict regulations on what kind of treatment they could receive, including the type of horses or vehicles they could use, which was clearly defined. However, most people ignored these rules without facing legal consequences.
On one hand, officials misused the relay system by demanding excessive services, such as better horses, additional porters, or even cash allowances. On the other hand, station managers engaged in corruption by failing to provide the required services, using public resources for personal profit, and even extorting money from users.
By the late Ming Dynasty, the relay system had become a deeply entrenched problem of corruption. The annual budget was insufficient, and personnel were severely overstaffed. Moreover, regular government business and the delivery of important documents were delayed or even ignored.
In 1629, Emperor Chongzhen ordered the reduction of excessive postal staff to save costs, resulting in a large number of postal workers being laid off, including Li Zicheng, who would later join the rebel army. While this decision initially saved money, it also disrupted the functioning of the postal system, which in turn hindered government communication and national security. Many of those who lost their jobs joined the peasant rebellion, significantly strengthening it.
While it is impossible to know for sure, it can be speculated that had Li Zicheng remained a postal worker, the history of the Ming Dynasty’s peasant uprisings would have been very different. The fate of the Ming Dynasty and Emperor Chongzhen might have changed as well.
This historical example serves as a powerful lesson: even a critical, effective system for governance can be undermined by corruption, and poorly considered reforms can exacerbate the problem. The lesson remains relevant today. Starting from the Qin Dynasty, each dynasty would center its road-building efforts around the capital, constructing and maintaining a road system that connected various administrative centers, border areas, and military strategic points. On this foundation, a relatively complete and comprehensive postal relay system developed. This postal relay, or "yichuan," refers to a system where a relay station was built at regular intervals along these roads, generally at a distance that could be covered in one day's journey. At each station, basic supplies were available, including food, rest areas, and accommodations. The stations also provided transportation services, such as horses, cattle, mules, carts, boats, and human porters.
Of course, establishing several thousand of these relay stations nationwide, along with maintaining and managing the personnel to supply these services, and maintaining the transportation tools, was a significant financial burden. Some relay stations were located in remote, sparsely populated areas, requiring personnel to be sent from distant locations and supplies to be dispatched from the interior, which made the operational costs very high. However, to ensure the daily governance of the country, especially to strengthen border defense, maintain internal security, and ensure smooth communication of government orders, the relay stations were essential, so the state did not hesitate to incur these costs. As a result, the management of these stations was subject to very strict regulations.
For example, during the Han Dynasty, the state would use official carriages to transport important officials or those specially designated by the emperor for public duties, a service known as "chengchuan." "Chuan" refers to the practice of passing along documents and officials from one relay station to the next. Sima Qian, for instance, accompanied Emperor Wu of Han on tours of various regions, and Sima Xiangru was sent to Ba Shu to console the people there—both enjoyed the "chengchuan" service. In some cases, when the emperor urgently summoned someone or wanted to show respect for an elder, a "chengchuan" order would be issued to bring the person to the capital. Generally, regular officials or routine matters could not use this service.
During the Tang Dynasty, over 1,600 relay stations were set up across the country, with 260 water stations, 1,297 land stations, and 86 combined water-and-land stations. Typically, a station was set up every 30 li, though special conditions could alter this distance. Sixty-five stations were specifically designated for breeding and providing horses for the postal service. Officials on official business were given different levels of service depending on their rank. A first-rank official could use ten horses, with the number decreasing with each rank, while an eighth or ninth-rank official would only get one horse, and one groom for every three horses. Water stations were equipped with two to four boats, each manned by three sailors, depending on demand.
In the Ming Dynasty, the use of government relay stations was restricted to six specific situations:
- To transmit the emperor’s edicts or to carry out assignments delegated by the emperor.
- To report urgent military intelligence, which had to be of significant importance.
- For princes to deliver congratulations or tributes, or to send envoys to the capital. The number of princes eligible for this was limited, and strict rules were in place for such uses of the relay system. In 1395, a law was enacted that prohibited the use of the system for routine tasks or ceremonial exchanges between royal households.
- For civil and military officials traveling to new appointments, provided the journey was over 1,500 li.
- When a serving official died, their body and family could use the system to return to their home.
- For the descendants of Confucius, specifically those holding the title of Duke of the Sheng family and their direct descendants.
If strictly enforced, these rules would limit the use of the relay system to relatively few people. However, as corruption worsened, the misuse of the relay system became rampant. Officials and others often used it to curry favor, bribe superiors, or transport friends and relatives, sometimes for personal or illegal gain. Even common citizens, with the right connections or bribes, could gain access to the system.
Xu Xiake, a famous traveler of the Ming Dynasty, provides an example. Xu, having failed in the imperial examinations, gave up pursuing a career as a government official and became a professional traveler. As a commoner, he did not meet any of the six conditions for using the relay system. However, in his Travel Diaries, Xu details how he used the system to send people for him, often demanding extravagant services. In Guangxi, for instance, the relay station provided him with ten porters, two palanquins, and horses. Sometimes, when the service was inadequate or dangerous, he even had the porters beaten. Despite not being entitled to use the system, Xu felt entitled to it, relying on his fame or the influence of officials who admired him.
As it turned out, Xu’s behavior was typical of the period. Those with official positions, power, or connections easily exploited the system for personal gain. Even individuals who technically met the six conditions faced strict regulations on what kind of treatment they could receive, including the type of horses or vehicles they could use, which was clearly defined. However, most people ignored these rules without facing legal consequences.
On one hand, officials misused the relay system by demanding excessive services, such as better horses, additional porters, or even cash allowances. On the other hand, station managers engaged in corruption by failing to provide the required services, using public resources for personal profit, and even extorting money from users.
By the late Ming Dynasty, the relay system had become a deeply entrenched problem of corruption. The annual budget was insufficient, and personnel were severely overstaffed. Moreover, regular government business and the delivery of important documents were delayed or even ignored.
In 1629, Emperor Chongzhen ordered the reduction of excessive postal staff to save costs, resulting in a large number of postal workers being laid off, including Li Zicheng, who would later join the rebel army. While this decision initially saved money, it also disrupted the functioning of the postal system, which in turn hindered government communication and national security. Many of those who lost their jobs joined the peasant rebellion, significantly strengthening it.
While it is impossible to know for sure, it can be speculated that had Li Zicheng remained a postal worker, the history of the Ming Dynasty’s peasant uprisings would have been very different. The fate of the Ming Dynasty and Emperor Chongzhen might have changed as well.
This historical example serves as a powerful lesson: even a critical, effective system for governance can be undermined by corruption, and poorly considered reforms can exacerbate the problem. The lesson remains relevant today.