The Impact of Migration on Capital Culture

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In ancient China, early cities were often referred to as "countries." Smaller countries typically had just one city, while larger ones might have several. The city where the ruler resided became the capital. However, due to simple infrastructure, limited ability to withstand natural disasters, and underdeveloped agricultural productivity, ancient cities often relocated to avoid calamities or improve living conditions. For instance, the Shang Dynasty frequently moved its capital, even after establishing its reign.

The Shang referred to their capitals as "Bo," leading to historical records of multiple cities named "East Bo," "West Bo," "South Bo," and so on. A document from the time of Pan Geng’s relocation to Yin captures his instructions to his subjects, urging the population and nobility to comply with his decision to move the capital. Most residents of the new capitals were migrants from elsewhere. By the late Shang period, the capital's location had stabilized.

During the Zhou Dynasty and in the vassal states of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, capitals were generally stable, moving only under exceptional circumstances. Despite this stability, these capitals attracted numerous immigrants, including merchants drawn by prosperity, defectors seeking protection, artists and craftsmen serving the elite, and even hostages and their entourages. Thus, capitals became hubs for diverse populations.

After unifying the six kingdoms, Qin Shihuang relocated 120,000 households to Xianyang, the Qin capital. These included the descendants of the nobility from the six kingdoms, individuals deemed politically unstable, and powerful local figures. Assuming an average household size of five, this relocation involved approximately 600,000 people, supplemented by voluntary migrants. Consequently, the majority of Xianyang's population consisted of immigrants.

During the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu (Liu Bang) moved the capital to Chang’an after Xianyang was destroyed. Building a new capital required a population, so Liu Bang relocated over 100,000 individuals, mainly from the eastern regions formerly part of the six kingdoms, to populate Chang’an. This included nobility, officials, and their families, creating a diverse immigrant population.

The Han emperors also built "mausoleum towns" (Lingxian) near their burial sites, where they settled new immigrant populations to guard the tombs. These settlements often attracted wealthy individuals and high-ranking officials, who were strategically relocated to promote economic prosperity and maintain surveillance over influential families. Consequently, many areas around Chang’an were inhabited by immigrants or their descendants.

The influx of immigrants had profound cultural and economic implications. For example, the Tian clan of Qi, originally nobility in their home state, migrated to Guanzhong (the region around Chang’an). Their population became so vast that they adopted surnames like "First" and "Fifth" to differentiate branches. The Tians excelled in commerce, dominating Guanzhong's economy by the mid-Western Han Dynasty.

After Emperor Wu of Han, Chang’an also welcomed immigrants from beyond China’s borders, including surrendered Huns and people from the Western Regions. These groups, including merchants and tribute-bearers, contributed to the city’s multicultural fabric. Major ceremonies often featured representatives from diverse ethnicities, highlighting Chang’an’s cosmopolitan character.

Chang’an’s vibrant urban culture was described by Han scholars as a melting pot:

The Northern Wei dynasty also relied heavily on immigrants to build its capitals. When the Tuoba Xianbei moved their capital to Pingcheng, tens of thousands of households from across their territory were relocated. Later, after capturing regions such as Qingzhou in modern Shandong, they moved even more people to Pingcheng, including officials, scholars, monks, musicians, and craftsmen. This influx transformed Pingcheng into a prosperous metropolis. When the capital moved to Luoyang, the Northern Wei relocated most of Pingcheng's population to the new capital.

Luoyang attracted numerous foreign traders, especially during the Northern Wei's peak in international trade. According to the Record of Buddhist Monasteries in Luoyang, thousands of families from Central Asia and beyond settled in the city, enjoying prosperity and spreading cultural influences.

The Tang Dynasty capital of Chang’an became an even more significant immigrant hub. Scholars estimate that foreigners accounted for over half the city’s population, including officials, merchants, artisans, entertainers, monks, students, and slaves. Immigrants came for various reasons, such as official appointments, trade, study, or refuge, and many chose to settle permanently.

Capitals and commercial centers, particularly during periods of division or dynastic unity, consistently attracted high-end immigrants. Coastal cities like Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Ningbo, and Yangzhou also became centers of international trade, hosting large numbers of Arab and Persian merchants. Guangzhou alone is estimated to have housed over 100,000 foreign residents during the late Tang Dynasty.

In these multicultural capitals, cultures blended, clashed, and influenced each other, creating unique cultural patterns. This cultural diversity fostered innovation, openness, and the dissemination of foreign goods, customs, and art. Over time, these influences spread from the capitals to the rest of the country.

Understanding the development of ancient Chinese capitals and cultural centers requires examining the role of immigrants—their origins, social conditions, interactions with local populations, and contributions to society. In an era without modern communication technologies, culture spread primarily through people. Immigrants served as dynamic carriers of cultural exchange, shaping the rich historical tapestry of China’s cities.