The Southward Migration of the "Qiang and Hu" and the Five Barbarians’ Invasions

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Following the Western Jin Dynasty, Chinese history entered the turbulent Sixteen Kingdoms period during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Over the span of more than 100 years, 16 regimes emerged in northern China, with an additional two smaller regimes often included in the count. Many of these states were established by leaders of five major non-Han ethnic groups: the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang. Historically, this period was labeled as the "Five Barbarians' Rebellion against China," implying that these ethnic minorities disrupted Chinese society. Traditional historiography often attributes this upheaval to the large-scale migration of ethnic minorities into the interior regions since the Eastern Han Dynasty. However, the migrations themselves were not the root cause of the disorder. To understand this period, it is crucial to examine how these migrations unfolded and what transpired afterward.

Large-scale migration of ethnic minorities into Han territories began during the Western Han Dynasty, when numerous Xiongnu were brought in as prisoners of war or through voluntary surrender. Most of them were settled in border areas, where they lived according to their traditional nomadic customs under policies aimed at preserving their way of life. A smaller group, including some from the Xiongnu nobility, were integrated into the Han court. Notable examples include Jin Midi, a Xiongnu prince who rose to prominence as a trusted minister to Emperor Wu of Han and became part of the Han aristocracy. His family flourished, blending seamlessly into Han society.

By the Eastern Han Dynasty, the migrations increased dramatically. When the Southern Xiongnu surrendered to the Han, they were relocated into the interior regions, with official records citing 34,000 households comprising over 237,000 people. The Xiongnu were joined by other ethnic groups such as the Xianbei, Qiang, and Di, who were similarly relocated to border areas or further inland. In Guanzhong, for instance, Jiang Tong noted during the early Western Jin Dynasty that "half the population" of the region was composed of ethnic minorities collectively referred to as "Rongdi."

The migrations were not uniformly managed. By the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty and into the Three Kingdoms period, some regions, such as northern Shaanxi and northeastern Gansu, were effectively abandoned by the central government. Maps from this period label these areas simply as "Qiang Hu," reflecting the lack of detailed records or administrative oversight.

Many of the settled ethnic minorities adopted agricultural practices, especially in regions like Shanxi's Fenshui River Basin. However, their living conditions were harsh. Large numbers of Xiongnu and other "Hu" groups were enslaved by Han landlords, officials, and military leaders. For example, during the Cao Wei period, Xiongnu slaves were sold in Jinyang (modern Taiyuan), and even future leaders like Shi Le, the Jie founder of the Later Zhao kingdom, endured such conditions. Captured and shackled in pairs, these individuals faced severe exploitation, often faring worse than impoverished Han peasants. This systemic mistreatment fueled resentment, prompting many to rebel or defect to emerging separatist forces.

The upper classes of these ethnic groups were often relocated to major cities like Luoyang. Han rulers believed that by immersing them in Han culture and etiquette, these elites could be assimilated and rendered less of a threat. This strategy was largely successful; by the Cao Wei and Western Jin periods, many Xiongnu nobles had fully adopted Han cultural practices. For example, they studied Confucian classics, embraced Han legal and political systems, and often intermarried with Han elites.

Cao Cao formalized the organization of the Xiongnu in 216 AD, establishing five Xiongnu tribes under a lieutenant general in Jinyang. Many Xiongnu nobles moved to Jinyang and Luoyang, integrating further into Han society. Some, like Liu Yuan, traced their lineage to Liu Bang, the founder of the Han Dynasty, and adopted the surname "Liu." Liu Yuan later founded the Han Zhao regime, presenting himself as the successor to the Han Dynasty.

The "Five Barbarians' Invasion of China" was not a straightforward ethnic conflict. The chaos began with internal strife within the Han Chinese elite. The Western Jin Dynasty's rulers, the Sima family, destabilized the political system by granting extensive autonomy to royal family members, enabling them to amass private armies. This policy culminated in the "Rebellion of the Eight Princes," a devastating civil war that left the dynasty vulnerable.

Taking advantage of this turmoil, leaders like Liu Yuan and Shi Le seized the opportunity to establish their own regimes. Their actions were less about ethnic animosity and more about power consolidation. Figures like Liu Yuan framed their rule within the Han cultural tradition, performing rituals to honor Liu Bang and portraying themselves as legitimate successors to the Han Dynasty.

Even among the so-called "barbarians," cultural assimilation was profound. Liu Yuan, for example, was well-versed in Confucian classics, military strategy, and Chinese historical texts. His sons, Liu He and Liu Cong, were similarly erudite, demonstrating a level of sinicization comparable to Han scholars. Their governance drew heavily on Han administrative and military systems, and they employed numerous Han officials.

The "Five Barbarians' Invasion of China" was far from a simple story of ethnic conflict. The lower classes of ethnic minorities shared much in common with Han peasants, both groups being victims of exploitation, displacement, and social upheaval. Meanwhile, the elites of the "Five Barbarians" had been deeply influenced by Han culture and often sought to legitimize their rule within its framework.

The collapse of the Western Jin Dynasty created a power vacuum that allowed these groups to establish their own regimes. Leaders like Liu Yuan and Shi Le, guided by Han cultural and political principles, capitalized on the chaos to create new states. Their regimes, while led by non-Han elites, were structurally and culturally similar to Han Chinese separatist states.

In conclusion, the "Five Barbarians' Invasion of China" was not merely an ethnic uprising but a complex interplay of internal Chinese political collapse, social unrest, and opportunistic power grabs by sinicized elites from minority groups. Understanding this period requires moving beyond simplistic narratives of ethnic conflict to appreciate the broader historical and cultural dynamics at play.