Why Did Ancient People Migrate?

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Migration has always been an integral part of human history, and in ancient times, survival was the primary driver. With limited productivity, local natural conditions often failed to sustain populations, forcing people to migrate in search of better resources.

Ancient Chinese texts show frequent migrations during the Shang Dynasty, including repeated relocations of the capital. These movements were largely due to low agricultural productivity. As soil fertility declined or natural disasters such as floods, droughts, or locust infestations struck, grain production could no longer sustain the population, necessitating relocation. Similarly, pastoralists relied on water and grasslands, moving seasonally or cyclically to find better grazing conditions.

While most migrations were for survival, others sought opportunities for wealth, education, or official positions, moving to areas with richer resources, cultural centers, or capitals. A smaller number migrated purely out of curiosity, but such cases were rare due to the constraints of their time.

Early Chinese civilization primarily developed in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, an area rich in fertile soil, mild climate, and abundant rainfall. Over time, this environment fostered a deeply rooted culture of land attachment, where people only moved when absolutely necessary. In normal circumstances, migration was limited, and people often lived in the same place for generations or moved only short distances. However, when disasters struck—whether natural or man-made—people fled temporarily, often returning home when conditions improved.

Triggers for Large-Scale Migration

  1. Natural and Man-Made Disasters
    Continuous and large-scale droughts had a particularly devastating impact. Unlike floods, which passed quickly, droughts left people without food for extended periods, forcing them to flee. Similarly, wars, uprisings, and invasions often displaced populations, as civilians sought refuge far from conflict zones.

  2. Geopolitical and Climatic Changes
    The middle and lower Yellow River region, long a center of Chinese civilization, frequently became a battleground due to its political importance. Capitals like Chang’an, Luoyang, and later Kaifeng, often attracted conflict, causing repeated migrations. Climate shifts also played a role. As temperatures cooled and the Yellow River basin became drier, the Yangtze River basin, with its increasingly mild climate, became more hospitable, prompting migration southward.

Major Migration Waves in Chinese History

  1. Post-Yongjia Rebellion (4th Century)
    The collapse of the Western Jin Dynasty following the Yongjia Rebellion (311 CE) and subsequent "Five Barbarians' Rebellion" led to more than a century of warfare in northern China. Refugees, including aristocrats, officials, and civilians, fled south to establish new lives in the Yangtze River basin, particularly around Jiankang (modern Nanjing).

  2. Post-Anshi Rebellion (8th-10th Centuries)
    The Anshi Rebellion (755-763 CE) during the Tang Dynasty sparked another wave of southward migration. This time, migrants moved beyond the Yangtze, settling in areas like Jiangxi, Hunan, and Guangxi.

  3. Post-Jingkang Incident (12th Century)
    The fall of the Northern Song Dynasty to the Jin army in 1127 CE triggered another large-scale migration. The Southern Song Dynasty, established in Lin’an (modern Hangzhou), became a refuge for northern migrants. This migration extended beyond the Yangtze to Lingnan (south of the Nanling Mountains), including Guangdong and Guangxi.

  4. Ming Dynasty Reclamation of the North (14th-15th Centuries)
    After the Yuan Dynasty, southern China became overpopulated, while the north remained sparsely populated. The Ming Dynasty initiated large-scale resettlement programs, particularly around Beijing and northern provinces, to restore population balance.

  5. Post-Qing Conquest (17th Century)
    Wars during the Qing Dynasty caused massive depopulation in regions like Sichuan, where tigers roamed deserted streets. The Qing government implemented policies to attract settlers, offering tax exemptions and land grants. This resulted in waves of migration from Huguang (modern Hubei and Hunan) and other provinces, famously known as the "Huguang Filling Sichuan."

  6. Northeast Development (19th Century)
    The "Chuang Guandong" migration to northeast China began in the mid-19th century, as Shandong and Hebei residents sought opportunities in Manchuria. Government incentives and geopolitical concerns spurred this migration, ultimately transforming the region into a populous and economically vital area by the 20th century.

Other Migration Patterns

  1. Forced and Voluntary Northern Migration
    During the Five Dynasties and Northern Song periods, conflicts and foreign regimes like the Khitans forcibly relocated Han Chinese to areas under their control, including Inner Mongolia and northeast China.

  2. Overseas Migration
    Since the Ming Dynasty, people from coastal regions like Fujian and Guangdong began migrating to Southeast Asia. Initially illegal, these migrations expanded during the Qing Dynasty as imperialism and labor demands drove Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia, the Americas, and Africa.

  3. Hakka Migration
    In the Qing Dynasty, Hakka people from mountainous Guangdong regions moved to plains and even Taiwan, often clashing with local communities. To manage conflicts, some were relocated to remote areas like Hainan Island.

  4. Taiwan
    After Taiwan was incorporated as a prefecture in 1684, immigrants from Fujian and Guangdong formed the majority of its population, maintaining close ties to mainland China.

The Legacy of Migration

Migration has profoundly shaped China's history and geography. Large-scale movements redistributed populations, developed previously uninhabited regions, and even consolidated national borders. From survival-driven relocation to economically motivated resettlements, migration defined the evolution of Chinese civilization. As a testament to its significance, the story of China's development would be incomplete without recognizing the critical role of migration.

Without migration, there would be no Chinese history, and without migrants, there would be no China as we know it today.